Annotated Bibliography on the Gulen
Hizmet Movement and Islamic Education in the United States
Aydin, Hasan (2013). Four Stakeholder’s Perception on Educational
Effectiveness of Nigerian Turkish
International Colleges: a Qualitative
Case Study. Sage Online
Publications 3(2).
This article
concerns the efficacy of Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTICs) in
Nigeria. It examines how the Gülen-inspired educational system is unique in
terms of its curriculum, teaching philosophy, and overall school culture.
The author’s two main research questions are, ‘what is the
nature of the Gülen educational movement in Nigeria?’ and ‘how has the
philosophy been implemented in the schools?’
In this qualitative study, the
researcher conducted interviews of 22 adults, aged 16 to 61 (the mean age was
28.9), 13 males and 9 females, including teachers, students, administrators,
and students’ parents. The study took place on the NTIC campus in Abuja,
Nigeria in the spring of 2010. The findings showed that interviewees had a
mostly positive view of the Gülen philosophy, as well as being “aware of the
fact that the schools are founded by volunteers inspired by Gülen’s ideas, and
not by Gülen himself” (Aydin 2013).
Two major themes that emerged from
this research were 1) that of teachers as role models of altruism (selfless
service to others), and 2) academic achievement. Parents were particularly
impressed with how NTICs compared in contrast with public (government) schools,
both in terms of the attitudes of teachers, and the accomplishments of
students. Concerns included separation of the sexes at the secondary level
(boys and girls attend separate campuses), as well as the lack of discussion of
current events in Nigerian society (political corruption, and the economic,
social and environmental issues related to petroleum extraction in the Niger
Delta). The major drawback to this research is that the researcher was denied
access to government schools, and was therefore unable to make a more effective
comparison between the two educational systems.
The author
has also visited Gülen-inspired schools in the Philippines (like Nigeria, an
area of Christian-Muslim conflict) where the schools serve as ‘islands of
peace’ in an otherwise intensely polarized society. The schools, while inspired
by the teachings of a Muslim imam and largely staffed by Turkish teachers
motivated by Islamic values of altruistic service to others, are secular in
their curriculum and in accordance with local regulations. The author believes
that the schools “can help reduce poverty, promote positive human development,
promote peace, aid in conflict resolution, and improve educational
opportunities” (Aydin 2013)
The author received his MA in
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) in 2007 and his PhD in
Multicultural Curriculum and Instruction in 2011 from the University of Nevada,
Reno. He is currently assistant professor of Multicultural Education at Yildiz
Technical University in Istanbul.
This
article is useful because it addresses some of the targets of both praise and
criticism of the Gülen movement in education. It demonstrates how a group of
educators devoted to altruistic principles of self-sacrifice and service to
others can create positive change in society. It also identifies the areas in
which their service could be improved. It would be interesting to do a
comparative study of the Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria with those in
the United States, to see where both praise and criticism of the schools in
these two very different societies overlap.
Ebaugh, Helen Rose
(2010). The Gülen Movement: A
Sociological Analysis of a
Civic Movement Rooted in Moderate
Islam. New York: Springer.
This book
is a sociological study using the theoretical frameworks of resource
mobilization and organizational commitment theory. Resource mobilization theory
(developed during the 1970s) concerns social movements’ ability to sustain
themselves financially, and organizational commitment theory (Kanter, 1972)
concerns the ability of social movements to retain support from its members. It
asks, using organizational commitment theory, how the Gülen movement has
“captured the enthusiasm of millions of Turks both within the country as well
as in the countries to which they have migrated, as well as non-Turks in areas
where Turkish immigrants are living” (Ebaugh, 2010). It also asks, drawing from
resource mobilization theory, how the Gülen-inspired projects are funded.
For this study, the author
interviewed people involved in the movement in both the United States and in
Turkey, where, during annual two-week visits over the course of four years, she
visited schools in eight different cities. Interviews revealed the following
educational philosophy: “educating
the youth in society to combine spirituality with intellectual training;
providing modern education in all areas of life; emphasizing Turkish
nationalism and an appreciation of the Turkish past; engaging in intercultural
and interfaith dialog; tolerance of different ideas and opinions; love and
respect for all humanity; a global perspective; hospitality; and giving service
and help to one’s fellow human beings” (Ebaugh 2010). She also
interviewed doctors, administrators, business leaders and blue-collar workers
in different Gülen-inspired institutions, including Sema Hospital, Bank Asya,
Samanyolu TV, Zaman Newspaper, Fatih University, The Journalists and Writers
Foundation, and Kimse Yok Mu Relief Organization.
The efficacy of the schools and other
projects, as seen through organizational commitment theory, was found to
emanate from the fact that “supporters of the movement identify the goals of
the movement with their own personal goals” (Ebaugh 2010). Therefore,
individuals were able to find meaning and sustenance in their own lives, both
materially and spiritually, by giving wholeheartedly to the movement. The
funding for such projects, as seen through resource mobilization theory, was
found to emanate from a tradition of giving in Islamic and Ottoman tradition.
The main
drawback to this research is that it fails to include the perspectives of those
critical of the movement, in both Turkey and the United States. In the book’s
final chapter, the author points out that the book is a sociological study of
the movement and its outcomes, “not a critical evaluation of the movement from
various perspectives” (Ebaugh 2010). As such, it is affected by the author’s
positionality as interviewing only those engaged with the movement, as well as
being a sociologist working within the academic lens of sociological theory.
Nevertheless,
this work is a valuable scholarly work on the movement, and is widely cited in
other books and research articles on the subject. For anyone interested in
studying the Hizmet movement, it
provides a comprehensive introduction, including description of the events in
20th century Turkey that shaped Gülen’s ideas toward education and
community service.
Karakas, Fahri
(2008). A holistic view of spirituality
and values: the case of
global Gülen networks.
Journal of Management, Spirituality, and Religion, 5(1), pp. 56–84. Retrieved
from http://oro.open.ac.uk/22971/2/Karakas(7).pdf
This study
focuses specifically on the spiritual inspiration behind the Gülen movement.
Research questions include how the religious traditions of the Turkish people
influence the movement, and whether or not these values are universal enough to
inspire schools and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) from other traditions
as well. It employs a range of research methods including “32 qualitative
interviews, participant observation, multi-sited ethnography and documental
analysis”, of seven selected Gülen-inspired schools and NGOs (Fahri
2008).
The author
cites research (Giacaleone & Jurkiewicz 2003, Duchon & Plowman, 2005;
Fry, 2005) showing the connection between spirituality and the workplace, as a
reason for the success of the Hizmet
movement. Defining spirituality as “the journey to find a sustainable,
authentic, meaningful, holistic and profound understanding of the existential
self and its relationship/interconnectedness with the sacred and the
transcendent”, the author concludes that the success of the movement is that
its members feel spiritual inspiration from the work they do, and that “work
gives meaning to their lives” (Fahri 2008).
Findings
showed that the schools saw themselves as promoting “universal ethical values,
instead of Islamic or nationalistic ones”. This reflects the teachings of Fethulah
Gülen, and of “Anatolian dervishes (Sufis)
and Muslim saints, who stress knowledge, love, dialogue and compassion”.
Central among these figures is Mevlana Jalaluddin Rumi (1207-1273 CE). “Rumi’s
philosophy, based on universal love and peace, has shaped and influenced
Anatolian intellectual and spiritual milieu (i.e. the context of these schools)
for more than seven centuries” (ibid). The author concludes that spirituality,
as distinct from organized religion, can not only be a positive force in the
workplace, but can be the driving force behind both economic progress and
social change, as evidenced by the Gülen movement.
This
article helped to clarify the connection between the Universalist principles in
Anatolian Sufism and the ideals behind the Hizmet
movement. The author attributes the success of any organization, be it a
school, a hospital, a bank, a TV station or an NGO, to the fulfillment of the
spiritual needs of its members or employees. Given the strong undercurrents of
Universalism in Anatolian Sufism, and (unlike the Ottoman Empire) the relative
cultural (and religious) uniformity of modern Turkish society, it makes sense
that the success of schools and other organizations based on the spirituality
of their employees would naturally work well in a society like Turkey’s. In a
more pluralistic society such as the United States, there is the added
challenge of interfaith dialogue, without necessarily the historical precedent
of Universalism (i.e., the belief in universal moral principles existent in all
faith traditions). Our challenge can be to recognize Universalism in our own
spiritual practices (Christian, Jewish, Muslim, or non-affiliated) as it guides
and inspires our own schools, businesses and NGOs based here in the U.S.
Duchon, D. and Plowman, D. A. (2005) Nurturing the spirit at work: Impact on unit
performance. The
Leadership Quarterly. Vol.16 (5); pp. 807-834.
Fry, L.W. (2005). Toward
a paradigm of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly. Vol. 16,
(5), pp. 619-622.
Giacalone, R A., and Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2003). Toward a science of workplace spirituality.
In: R.A.
Giacalone and C.L. Jurkiewics, Editors,
The handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational performance. M.E.
Sharpe, New York, pp. 3–28.
Johnson,
D. Paul (2013). The Gülen Hizmet movement
in Turkey: An Islamic
movement to reduce
violence and promote tolerance through education and intercultural dialogue. Review
of Religious Research
55(2), 379-380. Retrieved from http://www.hartfordinstitute.org/sociology/Johnson-Gulen-Hizmet-Movement.pdf
Similar to
Ebaugh’s, this is a study of “the organizational patterns and underlying
motivations” of participants in the Gülen movement, and is based upon
“focused interviews… with a sample of businessmen who help fund movement
projects and with Gülen Hizmet school
teachers and administrators” (Johnson 2013). The author draws from the theories
of Jürgen Habermas (1984,1987) “to analyze educational practices and
intercultural communication oriented toward the identification of universal
moral values” (Johnson 2013). By studying the movement through the lens of
‘universal moral values’, the author attempts to explain the efficacy of the
movement in creating dialogue and peace between diverse cultures. This study is
unique in that it focuses on the southeastern Anatolia region of Turkey, where
“poor young people with Kurdish background are vulnerable to being recruited
into the PKK (Kurdistan Worker’s Party) for terrorist activities”(Johnson 2013).
The research
findings showed “an informal and decentralized network structure in which
participants are motivated primarily by their religious beliefs” (Johnson 2013).
Johnson is arguing that those involved in the movement, whether they are
teachers, administrators, or the businessmen who fund the endeavors, are
religiously motivated to serve the common good. “Both businessmen and educators
described as typical a pattern whereby educators would simply let the business
people know what their needs were and, following discussion, a collective
decision would be made as to how the need would be met and who would volunteer
to provide the necessary financial (or other) resources” (Johnson 2013). This
shows there to be a non-hierarchical structure to the movement, with the needs
of the people coming first.
Interpreted through
the theoretical lens of Habermas (1984,1987), the primary motivating and
organizational force in the movement is grounded in “Fethulah Gülen’s teachings
on the universalistic values shared by all of the major world religions,
especially Christianity and Judaism, that he sees as being based on the
teachings of the Prophet Mohammed and the Qur’an. In the movement inspired by
Mr. Gülen, the discovery of these universalistic values occurs through
education and intercultural dialogue.” (Johnson 2013). As such, Hizmet volunteers are inspired to serve people of different religions, and
promote interfaith dialogue, all the while being motivated by Islam. Rather
than seek to convert people through proselytizing or by other means, teachers
in particular were encouraged to emphasize both “moral and scientific
education”, through setting a good example for their students to follow (Johnson
2013). Furthermore, the author found that a major component of the movement in
education was the concept of “enlightened citizenship”, showing the importance
of civic engagement, as being grounded in universal moral values (Johnson 2013).
All of this transcends education as being merely scientific or ‘rational’ in
the material sense, and becomes what Habermas calls “expressive rationality”,
wherein movement participants engage in “intercultural dialogue in order to
find and express their common experiences” (Johnson 2013).
Like Ebaugh, Johnson
was hosted by Turks involved in the Hizmet
movement, which no doubt had an effect on their positionality, especially
regarding the efficacy of the endeavors of those in the movement. "A
major type of movement project consists of sponsorship of a steady stream of
organized tours of Turkey for visitors who are invited from various other
countries (including the United States), with all expenses paid by Gülen
movement sponsors, for the purpose of increasing their understanding of Turkish
society and its historical background and current culture and also promoting
intercultural dialogue and friendship”, he writes (Johnson 2013). Due to Hizmet sponsorship of their trips, the
researchers were not intentionally exposed to opponents of the movement, such
as staunch secularists who suspect Gülen of trying to reassert religion into
the public sphere (as it was under the Ottomans, before the secularizing
reforms of Atatürk), or of supporters of the PKK, with their long list of
grievances against the Turkish state.
Hillman, B. (2008).
Is there a place for religious charter schools? The Yale Law
Journal, 118(3), 554-599
The author writes from the legal
perspective, debating the Constitutionality of religiously oriented, publically
funded charter schools. Her central question is, to what extent can publically
funded, privately run charter schools profess a particular religious
affiliation without violating the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment?
To what extent can they allow for religious observances in school, including
places to wash and perform spiritual exercises, without violating the Free
Exercise Clause of that very Amendment? In her study, She examines the
relationship between values, culture and jurisprudence in her study of
religiously affiliated charter schools in the U.S.
The two public charter schools she
studies are Terek Ibn Ziyad (TIZ) Academy in Inver Grove Heights, MN, and Ben
Gamla Charter School in Hollywood, FL. TIZ first aroused public suspicion for
the distinctive headgear of its female employees and for its Arabic curriculum,
which some people associated with terrorism. Both schools became the targets of
lawsuits accusing them of violation of the Establishment Clause. However, upon
investigation, TIZ was found to be in compliance with state standards, only
requiring that it provide busing at the end of the school day, rather than in
the evening, and to conduct their Friday Juma
prayer off-site. Similarly, Ben Gamla, founded by an Orthodox Rabbi, featuring
Hebrew instruction and promoting Jewish cultural achievement, was accused of
violating the Establishment Clause, since it was a charter school and
publically funded. The school sought legal advice from the Beckett Fund for
Religious Liberty, and in the end was required to conduct daily minyan prayers elsewhere.
While religiously affiliated
charter schools were able to teach languages (such as Arabic and Hebrew) not
usually offered in mainstream public schools, and promote the cultural
achievements of Muslims and Jews, they were prevented from actively promoting
the religion. Both schools were found to cater to religious minorities, whose
distinctive religious practices and moral codes made them uncomfortable sending
their children to mainstream public schools.
The second part of her study
consists of reasons for the successes of religiously affiliated charter
schools, outlines how changing Supreme Court rulings on the Establishment
Clause has reflected public opinion, reminds us of the historical legacy of 19th
Century ‘Christian Americanism’, when the Bible was the mainstay of education,
and emphasizes that minority religions ought to have equal rights to practice
their religion while engaging in the public sphere. This study draws upon the
history of Supreme Court Cases including Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403
U.S. 602 (1971) (with its famous, “three-pronged Lemon test”), Aguilar
v. Felton, 473 U.S. 402 (1985) and Agostini
v. Felton, 521 U.S. 203 (1997). These cases
involved the Constitutionality of public funding for religious schools teaching
secular subjects.
The consequences of this thinking
imply the failure of one-size-fits-all public schools as the answer to serving
society’s needs in the 21st Century. This article could affect
educational policy in those who read Yale Law Journal might be in influential
positions in the legal profession, and have considerable power in the political
realm.
This statement impacts my work as
an educational professional in that it had me examine the pros and cons of
public schools, private schools and religious charter schools from the
perspective of a Muslim citizen of the United States of America. After studying
this article and many more besides, I am torn between whether public school
reform or increased liberty to public charter schools, including those that are
religiously affiliated, is the best answer. While spirituality can inspire
teachers and students to their highest potential, and is an instrumental force
in motivating social change, the problem remains of the ‘ghettoization’ of minority
religious groups, which can lead to a lack of interfaith dialogue. The obvious
advantage of public schools is that they bring everyone together, but the
secular and materialist culture experienced there is often detrimental to those
of religious faith.
After reflecting on this article, I
am convinced that religious charter schools can work, so long as interfaith
awareness is central to their curriculum, and that students from schools such
as TIZ and Ben Gamla can join together in community service projects that help
solve social and environmental problems affecting us all.
Memon, N. (2009). From
protest to praxis: A history of Islamic schools in North
America. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto)
Retrieved from https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/19154/6/Memon_Nadeem_A_200911_PhD_thesis.pdf
Back in Novemeber 2013, I met with
Dr. Joseph Lumbard, Professor and Chair of Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies
in the department of Near Eastern and Judaic Studies at Brandeis University, to
discuss my interest in researching Islamic education. Dr. Lumbard put me in
touch with Dr. Memon, founder of the Islamic Teacher Education Program, a
Toronto-based organization that focuses on issues pertaining to Muslim schools
in North America.
Dr. Memon’s dissertation is a
qualitative study of the history of Muslim schools in North America. In it, he
chronicles his ethnographic study of the evolution of Islamic schools on this
continent through oral histories. Dr. Memon finds the educational goals of
Muslim schools in North America to fall into four distinct historical phases: Protest,
Preservation, Pedagogy, and Praxis. Much of his research focuses on the
educational philosophies of three prominent figures: Imam Warith Deen Mohammed,
Elijah Muhammad’s son and director of the Clara Muhammad Schools; Sudanese-Canadian
Shaykh Abdalla Idris Ali, Secretary General of the Islamic Society of North America
in Canada, and Shaykh Hamza Yusuf, U.S.-born Sufi convert and founder of the
Zaytuna Institute in California. He draws from two main sociological theories: Anti-Colonial
Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory.
The earliest Muslim schools on the
continent were founded by Black Muslims as part of Nation of Islam, under the
leadership of the Honorable Elijah Muhammad. The original University of Islam
(established on the South Side of Chicago in 1934) has since become the Clara
Muhammad Schools, named for their founder, Elijah’s wife. From the start, these
schools emphasized positive Black self-identity, economic independence and
Black Nationalism. With the passing of Elijah, his father in 1975, Imam Warith
Deen Mohammed brought the Nation and its schools into line with more
traditional Islamic teachings as understood by the increasing number of immigrants
from India, Pakistan, Arab countries, and other Muslim lands.
Nadeem’s work is particularly
relevant in that it highlights the diversity of Muslim religious expressions in
North America, from indigenous expressions coming out of the Nation of Islam,
to traditional Sufism, to the more fundamentalist Wahhabi, Salafi and Deobandi
sects that have arisen in modern times as a post-colonial phenomenon. It also
examines some of the tensions that have existed between these various groups in
their attempts to establish Muslim religious schools in North America.
In researching Islamic education in
the United States and comparing it to the teachings of Fethullah Gulen, I found
a common theme: a commitment to the modeling of correct moral behavior in
addition to academic content. In the schools established by the Nation of
Islam, “Elijah Muhammad’s vision sought to vociferously transform believers
with a sense of self respect and responsibility.” (Memon 2009) In
Gulen-inspired schools, the “focus should be on temsil (example), not tebligh
(preaching). Preaching alienates, not attracts people. Representation, not
presentation, attracts people. Teachers should embody universal values, know
their learners well, and appeal to their heads and their hearts.” (Michel 2003).
Michel, T. (2003) Fethullah
and the Gulen Schools. Understanding Fethullah
Gulen. Istanbul: Journalists and Writers
Foundation.
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